Cambodia's Cultural Arts

Defining the 'cultural arts of Cambodia' is a fairly complex matter. The problem is deciding just where the 'Cambodian' element in matters cultural and artistic start, and where they end. To begin with, Cambodian culture is--together with that of the Mons and the Chams--about the earliest known indigenous high culture in the region. Yet Cambodian culture, even in the distant days of Chen La and early Angkor, drew heavily on Indian cultural, religious and artistic influences. So heavily, indeed, that Cambodian culture is generally defined as 'Indic'. The Khmers in turn went on to influence their neighbours, particularly the Lao and the Thais. Much of Khmer culture is so similar to that of neighbouring Thailand that visiting Thais are often amazed by the similarity. Thai writing, for example, is derived from Khmer, as is much of Thai court language and culture.

But who gave what to whom? Indicisation may have started with the Khmer Empire, but at times of Cambodian weakness and Thai strength the flow was often reversed. An interesting if little known example of this--through the unlikely intermediary of French colonialism--was the reestablishment of traditional court dance in the palace at Phnom Penh in the early 20th century. Standards had fallen so far in Phnom Penh that the French invited classical dance masters from the court of Bangkok to reinvigorate the tradition in Cambodia! Thus it is difficult to draw clear dividing lines between the Indic cultures of Southeast Asia. Much of what is Cambodian is also--perhaps with minor variations--Thai or Lao, or at one remove Burmese or even Javanese! Perhaps the paramount example of this is the great Hindu epic the Ramayana. In the context of the present book, the Ramayana influences both Lao and Cambodia culture--music, dance, literature, painting--to such an extent that it must be considered in depth. Because the great literary epic is essentially the same--Reamker in Khmer, Pha Lak Pha Lam in Lao--it is dealt with in a single section, under Cambodian culture rather than Lao. This is because of the great 19th century murals of the Ramayana which exist at the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh, while there is nothing so graphic in Laos. The tradition of the Ramayana as an all-pervading cultural influence is as applicable to Laos as it is to Cambodia, however.

Ramayana, Reamker, Pha Lak Pha Lam

It's a story as old as time and - at least in the Indian subcontinent and across much of Southeast Asia - of unparalleled popularity. More than 2,300 years ago, at about the same time as Alexander the Great invaded northwest India, in another, less troubled part of that vast country the scholar-poet Valmiki sat down to write his definitive epic of love and war.

The poem Valmiki composed is styled the Ramayana, or "Romance of Rama" in Sanskrit. The shorter of India's two great epic poems - the other being the Mahabharata, or "Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty" - the Ramayana is, nevertheless, of considerable length. In its present form, the Sanskrit version consists of some 24,000 couplets divided into seven books. It's astonishing, then, to think that people beyond count have memorised the entire work, and that at no time, probably, since Valmiki's initial composition, has the Ramayana not enjoyed passionate recitation somewhere in Asia. Today it remains as vital as ever, though television, film and radio have brought it to a wider audience than Valmiki could ever have conceived. It's the favourite story of half the world - and its appeal continues to grow.

The Ramayana, which scholars consider more of a romance than an epic, begins with the birth of Prince Rama in the Kingdom of Ayodhya, commonly associated with the ancient city of Oudh, on the banks of the Sarayu River near Lucknow in northern India. Rama's youth is spent in the royal palace, under the tutelage of the sage Vishvamitra, from whom he learns patience, wisdom and insight - the necessary qualities for a just and perfect king.

As a young man Rama enters a bridegroom contest for the hand of Sita, the beautiful and pious daughter of King Janaka. Rama alone has the strength to bend the great bow of Shiva, and by this supernatural act he wins Sita, his beloved, to be his wife. The peerless couple marry, and for some time all is well at Ayodhya - but then Rama falls victim to intrigue at the royal court, loses his position as heir, and withdraws to the forest for a period of fourteen years. Sita accompanies Rama into exile, as does his favourite half-brother, the loyal Lakshmana.

During this time, word of Rama's exile reaches the ear of Ravana, demon-king of the island of Lanka. Ravana lusts after Sita and, having sent a magical golden deer to lead Rama and Lakshmana off hunting, he seizes Sita and carries her off to his fortified palace in Lanka. Although a helpless captive, Sita resolutely resists all Ravana's advances, whilst Rama and Lakshmana, realising they have been tricked, set about organising her rescue.

The defeat of Ravana and his devilish cohorts is no easy task, however, and the royal brothers need help in their endeavour. Fortunately, allies are found in Sugriva, King of the Monkeys, Ravana's own brother, Vibhishana, and - above all - the noble monkey-general Hanuman. Acting in unison, and overcoming great difficulties, the forces of light invade Lanka, rescue Sita, and overthrow Ravana who is killed by Rama.

At this point in the story a darker side of Rama becomes apparent, as he accuses Sita of infidelity and requires her to undergo an ordeal by fire to prove her innocence. Rama seems satisfied, but on returning to Ayodhya he learns that the people still question Sita's virtue, and he banishes her to the forest. In exile, Sita meets the sage Valmiki and at his hermitage gives birth to Rama's two sons. The family is reunited when the sons become of age, but Sita, after once again protesting her innocence, asks to be received by the earth, which swallows her up.

The Ramayana soon became immensely popular in India, where its recitation is considered an act of great merit. It was translated from the original Sanskrit into numerous vernacular versions, often works of great literary merit themselves, including the Tamil version of Kampan, the Bengali version of Krttibas, and the enduringly popular Hindi version, the Ramcaritmanas of Tulsidas. Other vibrant celebrations of the Romance of Rama which continue to flourish in India today include the annual Ram-Lila pageant of north India, and the elaborate Kathkali dance-drama of Kerala in the south.

But the story doesn't stop there. So powerful was the drama of the Ramayana, and so appealing its universal message to mankind, that it could not be constrained by the bounds of the subcontinent, and soon spread throughout the Hindu-Buddhist world, including Laos and Cambodia.

The impact of the Ramayana on Lao and Cambodian culture can scarcely be overstated. The love of Rama for Sita, the loyalty of Lakshmana and the heroism of Hanuman have left an indelible mark on many aspects of traditional drama, literature and dance.

The Phnom Penh Murals

David Henley / CPA

Mural within the Silver Pagoda, Royal Palace, Phnom Penh.

In 1831 King Rama III of Siam ordered master-painters to begin the great task of painting the Ramayana in murals at Wat Phra Kaeo in Bangkok. Over the next several years the story of Rama, Sita, Ravana and Hanuman unfolded over hundreds of square metres of cloister wall, shaded from the fierce tropical sun by long roofs of burnished orange tiles. At the time relations between the royal courts of Bangkok and Phnom Penh were close, and the Ramayana--in Thai, Ramakien--murals certainly came to the notice of visiting Cambodian nobles. In 1866 Cambodia's King Norodom began the building of a new Royal Palace in Phnom Penh, using French and Cambodian architects, but drawing much of his inspiration directly from the great Chakri royal complex in Bangkok. Some thirty years later, following the completion of the Silver Pagoda at the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh, a decision was taken to tell the story of the Ramayana in murals along the inner face of the wall surrounding the complex. The resulting mural--which is so long and detailed that it was not completed until the reign of King Sisovath--is protected by cloister-like arcades, and has been restored on a number of occasions, most recently in 1992. King Norodom's decision to order the painting of the mural, together with the style and technique, were clearly influenced by the Ramakien murals at Bangkok--yet they have a charm and distinction which is also their own, and in some sections are better preserved than their Bangkok counterparts.

Literature

As in neighbouring Indicised countries like Thailand, Burma and Laos, much traditional Cambodian literature revolves around the great Hindu epic Ramayana, known in its Khmer version as the Reamker. This describes the story of Prince Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, and his wife Sita who is kidnapped by Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka. The story is more than two millennia old, and figures prominently in the bas-reliefs at Angkor. The Reamker is also the main base for traditional theatrical performances including those of the Royal Theatre.

Dance

The beauty and elegance of the Cambodian Royal Ballet has to be seen to be believed. The writer Somerset Maugham was fortunate enough to witness a performance at Angkor in the 1920s, and enthused that 'the beauty of these dances against the dark mystery of the temple made it the most beautiful and unearthly sight imaginable. It was certainly more than worthwhile to have travelled thousands of miles for'. The dancers had an even greater impact on Auguste Rodin, who exclaimed on seeing a performance at Paris in 1906: 'These Cambodian women have given us everything antiquity could hold. It's impossible to see human nature reaching such perfection. There is only this and the Greeks'.

Archival Image

Rehearsal of the Cambodian Royal Ballet, circa 1928.

David Henley / CPA

Cambodian Royal Ballet.

It is amazing and incomprehensible, then, that this delicate and sophisticated art form suffered particularly badly under the Khmer Rouge regime. Under the psychopathic Pol Pot--who had relatives at the Royal Ballet and spent some time their in his youth--an attempt was made to destroy the ballet completely, which almost succeeded. Instruments were smashed, costumes and books burned, whilst musicians and dancers were systematically and brutally killed.

David Henley / CPA

Cambodian Royal Ballet.

Fortunately one or two dancers survived, as did Princess Bupphadevi, a favourite daughter of King Sihanouk, who was in exile in France. In the two decades since the fall of the Khmer Rouge the Royal Ballet has been painstakingly rebuilt, and today performances can be seen at the Hotel Cambodiana and elsewhere as advertised in Phnom Penh. Classical Khmer dance or lamthon as performed by the Royal Ballet bears a striking resemblance to that of the Thai royal court, and indeed the two traditions influenced each other in turn until they have become practically a shared art form. Training takes many years, and sumptuously elaborate costumes and headdresses are worn. It's a real spectacle that should not be missed. Cambodian masked theatre, known as khaul, is very similar to the Thai khon. Classical dances are often performed depicting incidents from the Buddha birth cycle stories, or Jataka.

Music

Cambodian music flourished in both court and village settings, some associated with specific functions, others with entertainment. In villages weddings are celebrated with kar music, communication with spirits is accompanied by arakk music, and entertainments include ayai repartee singing, chrieng chapey narrative, and yike and basakk theatres. At the court, dance, masked play, shadow play, and religious ceremonies are accompanied by the pinn peat ensemble and entertainment is provided by the mohori ensemble. Temples--urban or rural--often possess a pinn peat ensemble as well, but also a korng skor ensemble for funerals.

David Henley / CPA

Cambodian musical ensemble, Ta Phrom.

Traditional Cambodian music probably reached its zenith during the Angkor period. Carved on the walls of the great temples of Angkor and vicinity are the apsara (celestial dancer) figures along with musical instruments: the pinn (angular harp), korng vung (circular frame gongs), skor yol (suspended barrel drum), chhing (small cymbals), and sralai (quadruple-reed flute). These are believed to have developed into the present pinn peat ensemble used to accompany court dance, masked play, shadow play, and religious ceremonies.

In 1431, Angkor was looted by conquering Siamese armies, abandoned, and overrun by vegetation. The Cambodian king and his court musicians fled. Subsequently the capital was moved to Lovek. Once again, in 1594 Lovek was sacked by the Siamese. Little is known of this period, the most obscure in Cambodian history. This second debacle shocked and weakened the Cambodians. After this Cambodian defeat, music and its functions were deeply affected, and a new style of melancholic and emotional music is said to have emerged. The period from 1796 to 1859 was a period of renaissance for Cambodian music. King Ang Duong, the greatest of the monarchs of this period, ascended the throne in 1841 in the capital of Udong. Under his rule, Cambodian music and other art forms were revived and began to flourish again.

There are two types of traditional orchestra in Cambodia, the all male pip hat and the all female mohori. Both comprise eleven traditional musical instruments. These include stringed instruments, flutes, gongs, xylophones and three-stringed guitars. Music is sometimes accompanied by song, either improvised ballads or more usually formal court chants. At some festivals a traditional orchestra known as phleng pinpeat will give performances of royal court music. Yet another type of orchestra is the phleng khmer, which usually performs at weddings. Popular music has been strongly influenced in recent years by both Thai and Chinese pop culture.

Shadow Puppets

Like the Malay world and southern Thailand, the Cambodians have a tradition of shadow puppetry which they call nang sbaek thom, or 'shadow plays'. Generally performed during festivals, weddings and funerals, the plays are narrated by actors concealed below the puppet screen. A light behind the screen casts images of the puppets on the screen for the audience to watch. The puppets are made of cow or buffalo hide, and can be very intricate. Siem Reap in the north-west of the country is considered by many the home of this art form.

Architecture

David Henley / CPA

Bas relief, Angkor Wat.

From an architectural perspective, Cambodia is something of an enigma. Home to possibly the greatest and certainly the oldest high civilisation in mainland Southeast Asia, the country is studded with unique and outstandingly beautiful temple complexes, both Hindu and Buddhist, dating from the 6th to the 15th centuries AD. Modern temple architecture, it must be said, is a disappointment by comparison--though due allowance must be made for the systematic destruction and desecration wrought by the iconoclastic Khmer Rouge regime between 1975 and 1979.

Perhaps because King Sihanouk was in residence under effective house arrest during much of this period, the Royal Palace and Silver Pagoda at Phnom Penh were spared. Elsewhere, however, Buddha statues were decapitated, blown up or hurled into rivers, whilst temples--and mosques--were turned into grain storage barns or pigsties. Nor did Christian monuments fare any better; Phnom Penh Cathedral was leveled, and even the gods of Mammon were not spared as the National Bank was blown up. Fortunately, however, there were limits to even the Khmer Rouge regime's iconoclasm--Angkor and the other wonders of ancient Khmer civilisation were either protected or ignored and left to the encroaching jungle. Not for nothing has an image of Angkor Wat appeared on the flags of Cambodian regimes of all political persuasions. The great temple complex is a potent image of national identity which has, and continues to, transcend politics.

The temple architecture of ancient Khmer civilisation, both Hindu and subsequently Buddhist, is unique in style and readily identifiable. Building materials include laterite (often as a plinth or base), surmounted by structures of sandstone and/or stucco-covered brick. Elaborately carved sandstone lintels feature scenes from the Hindu pantheon--commonly the churning of the primeval ocean of milk or Vishnu reclining on a lotus flower. The Ramayana and--from around 1200 AD on--scenes from the Buddhist jataka or life cycles illuminate bas-reliefs of extraordinary quality. Everywhere, too, there are exquisitely executed figures of apsara, or heavenly dancing girls, bearing a wealth of jewellery and elaborate headdresses.

The central feature of the classical Khmer temple is often a stylised representation of Mount Meru of Hindu mythology. Main entranceways--with a few exceptions, notably at Angkor Wat itself--are from the east, marked by elaborately decorated gateways or gopura. Windows are all but filled with rows of finely-turned stone balusters. The central temple complex, generally set within several concentric enclosure walls, is usually characterised by the presence (in Hindu temples) of linga (stylised male phalli) and their counterpart, the female yoni. In times past lustral water was poured over linga and yoni, often conjoined, before being used as a source of blessing and purification. Statues of the major Hindu deities Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma are often present.

David Henley / CPA

The Bayon, Angkor Thom.

Other commonly represented figures from the Hindu pantheon included Nandi, the bull mount of Shiva, and the garuda, or bird-king mount of Vishnu. Other gods include Parvati or Uma, the wife of Shiva, their sons Skanda, the God of War, and elephant-headed Ganesh, the God of Knowledge. An interesting and--at least in Southeast Asian terms--particularly Khmer deity, Hari-Hara, represents a composite of Shiva and Vishnu. Subsequently, as Buddhism gradually replaced Hinduism from around the 11th century on, images of the Buddha and scenes from the ever-popular Ramayana were used in temple consecration and decoration.

Buddhist temples built in and after the 19th century are altogether less imposing affairs, though artistic merit is not always lacking. The influence of neighbouring Thailand is clearly dominant, though few contemporary Cambodian temples can match up to their Thai counterparts. The Royal Palace, too, is consciously based on the Thai court in Bangkok, and was indeed constructed under the supervision of French architects. It is, nevertheless, a fine complex and forms a fitting heart to the royal city of Phnom Penh.

Other buildings of note in the Cambodian capital include the rust-red, traditionally styled National Museum and a plethora of early 20th century French colonial architecture, particularly in the former French quarter to the north and west of Wat Phnom. Similar concentrations of French colonial architecture can be found in most provincial capitals, notably at Siem Reap, Kompong Cham, Battambang and Kampot. Although often sadly run-down, they are gradually being restored and repainted as Cambodia continues to pick itself up from the ashes.

The presence of Cham Muslims in many Cambodian towns from Siem Reap to Kompong Som means that mosques and minarets also form an integral part of the Cambodian skyline. By and large they are unremarkable imitations of the Islamic architectural style common in parts of the South Asian subcontinent and the Malay-Indonesian Archipelago. To the north of Phnom Penh, however, some interestingly unorthodox mosques, generally painted in the preferred Cham colour of pale blue in contrast to the traditional Islamic green, have been erected in the wake of horrific Khmer Rouge persecution.

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